Western and Eastern Differences in Non-Verbal Communication

People use nonverbal communication every day, everywhere and with everyone. It cannot be avoided. Simply being in a room with a stranger and not saying a word still results in nonverbal communication. Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, “What you do speaks so loudly that I cannot hear what you say” (Emerson). So, what happens when people speak different non-verbal languages? For those who wish to understand the unspoken language of different cultures, it is important to learn the similarities and differences. Western and Eastern cultures differ in nonverbal communication through expression of emotions, body language, and worldviews.

Many cultures express emotions differently. Abigail Marsh writes “similarities in accents help to identify members of a group” (Marsh, et al 373). People find such similarities comforting because of the level of understanding. Those of a culture-group mimic the cultural form of expressions so much, “the structure of the facial musculature” permanently change (Marsh, et al, 375). Although many basic facial expressions are inherited, cultural expression does have general effects on those of differing cultures. Elaine Chaika writes, “there is great similarity among cultures in signaling specific emotions by facial expression” (109). For example, “Chinese people always keep their emotions under control. They seldom kiss or hug each other in public. Lightly touching another person’s arm when speaking is a sign of close familiarity” (Wang 5). When these kinds of normal and expected forms of communication are not performed, or not performed well, people can point out those of differing cultures.

Different cultures can also determine nationality of strangers through facial expressions. Marsh, et al studied seventy-nine Native Americans and Canadians, including 61 Caucasians, 6 Blacks, 5 Asian-Americans and 7 without cultural background identification. The participants judged the emotional facial expressions (fear, surprise, disgust, sadness, or anger) of 9 Japanese nationals and 9 Japanese Americans in 36 photos. Figure 1 shows the “accuracy in judging nationality was highest for sad expressions (M 􏰂 0.38), followed by surprised expressions (M 􏰂 0.24), then fear expressions (M 􏰂 0.15,) and then disgust expressions (M 􏰂 0.12). Marsh, et al suggests emotional facial expressions “carries information about individuals’ nationality that is detectable to naive observers” (374). However, “observers are less able to determine the nationality of the same individuals’ neutral expressions (374).

📷 Figure 1

Body language is also highly cultural in expression. For example, hand gestures have different meanings for different cultures. In some European countries, such as France and Belgium, people find the thumb and forefinger touching with the other three fingers pointing up insulting, meaning “you are worth zero” (Wang and Li 67). In North America and other parts of the world, it is a “friendly gesture” (67). Greek and Turkish cultures often find the same gesture as a “sexual invitation” (Adler, Proctor 211). This shows how not knowing a culture’s nonverbal communication forms can have unwanted effects. For this reason, people seem to prefer speaking to those of similar cultural backgrounds because the conversation flows more easily and understandably. “Conversation between those of different cultures is often choppy, awkward and tense because of the lack of cultural nonverbal understanding” (Chaika 136). For example, Italians are known for talking with their hands and standing close to their audience in comparison to Americans. Some Americans might find such behavior rude. The Chinese culture also values nonverbal displays, such as holding hands, which is done with people of different relationships (Wang and Li 68). Americans often only hold hands to display a more romantic relationship (Jin 526). Chaika writes that “hand holding also displays commonality and cohesion in Eastern cultures” (132). In contrast, it is not common for Chinese people to shrug or kiss another on the cheek as it is in the United States (68). The Chinese culture also looks down on finger and foot pointing because they considered it “rude or hostile” (Wang, 5).

Different cultures prefer different spatial distance. For example, those from the United States usually stand about an “arm’s length” from each other while talking, unless they share a close relationship, such as wtih a family member (Wang and Li 68). In Eastern countries, such as Japan and China, people usually stand about six inches further. Americans may view such a distance as “cold” (68). Generally, Americans believe “the amount of space one takes up also gives clear messages about dominance” (Chaika 123). For example, American men are often seen with their arms splayed over the back of chairs and their knees far apart, especially when a woman is present, as a sign of power. In contrast, Chinese people believe sharing privacy is used “to keep harmonious relationships” with others (Wang 6). For example, those of the Chinese culture may read over someone’s shoulder on the bus or in line. It would not be uncommon for American strangers to even share reading material finding such behavior intruding and strange as they expect strangers to at least ask to break the personal space “bubble” (Chaika 130). The Chinese collectivist, low-context culture considers touching others as a sign of cohesion, as a relation to the whole. Interestingly, some research shows touching strangers has many benefits and a “positive effect” on others, even increasing the chances of strangers performing friendly favors (131).

Even while saying goodbye, typical Chinese hosts walk their guests a great distance, sometimes all the way to the car or house (Wang 5). Americans usually only walk guests to the door before saying farewell and end conversations by “walking backward” and decreasing the spatial distance (Chaika, 120). For example, one person in a conversation may start walking backwards without losing eye contact with the other person or stopping the conversation. Finally, when the person arrives to a particular distance, both parties share the understanding that the conversation is over.

Chinese people rely heavily on body language during conversation. Hand gestures help Chinese understand when to talk. Wang writes, “Chinese people value silence more than the use of words” (69). Because they are viewed as a high-context culture, the Chinese people are seen as “less face-threatening and less direct” (Ping, 125). For these reasons, it is understandable how hand gestures are very important during conversation. Low-context cultures, such as American, value words as strong indicators of what another person is thinking (125). The Chinese, in contrast, concentrate more on what the speaker does nonverbally in order to better understand (125). “Among ingroup members, polite expressions such as ‘thank you,’ ‘excuse me,’ and ‘I’m sorry’ are rarely spoken, but internalized” (105).

In Mandarin Chinese, speakers immediately stop or drop a hand movement to indicate when they are done speaking and count fingers and look away to keep the speaking role even during silence (Ping 106,118). Ping calls this the “Chinese Mandarin Thinking Face,” which is used to show “dispreference for co-participation” (122). During such times, the Chinese listener of a conversation will place their left hand on top of their right hand to show they are listening and waiting (121). Americans show they are listening by bobbing their head in rhythm to the speaker’s voice (Chaika 136). When the listener stops head bobbing or gazes at the speaker, they are demonstrating they have something to add to the conversation. Like the Chinese people, American speakers will not look at listeners in order to keep the speaking role (136). Wang and Li agree that head nodding has different implications for different cultures. While North Americans nod to show agreement, Japanese people nod to simply show they are listening (Wang and Li 66). This could be confusing for a Japanese tourist in America who wonders why sales people keep handing him or her items to buy even though he did not say he was interested, just that he was listening.

Eye movements and facial expressions also help Chinese people know when it is their turn to talk. For example, when the speaker takes short pauses, lengthens their sounds and gazes at the listener, the listener begins to gaze back toward the speaker to show he or she is ready to talk. If the listener does not share the speaker’s gaze, then the speaker knows to continue talking with long pauses until the listener is ready to speak (Ping 113). Gazing is necessary in Chinese culture communication because it directs the conversation towards the intended listener or speaker (115). Chaika adds that although gazing is useful during conversation, “most, if not all, cultures, [find] staring [as] impolite” (127). For example, children in some Hispanic countries would never look into an elder’s eyes during a conversation in order to show respect (Wang and Li 67,68). However, Chaika adds that some cultures, such as the Chinese, consider eye contact as a way to “reinforce solidarity” (132). Tian Jin believes a Western lack of looking into other people’s eyes “has led to less communication and interaction with others, and newcomers from other places will feel a certain kind of hostility and unfriendliness” (526). This would be especially true for some Easterners who greatly value eye contact to dictate conversational flow.

Collectivist and individualist societies share different worldviews, shown through nonverbal language. Researchers, such as Jin, believe understanding the Chinese culture’s nonverbal behavior will help others understand Chinese perspective (526). For example, Chinese think of time as “the rotation of a circle” (526). Whereas Americans look forward to the future, Chinese people also often look towards the past. Collectivist cultures, such as the Chinese and Japanese, “view others as a part of their surrounding” (Isaacowitc, et al 36). A Collectivist equally considers surroundings of a person to determine the nonverbal behavior of that person. In contrast, Individualists, such as Americans, concentrate more on the subject rather than the context. Isaacowitz et al demonstrated these differences by studying 184 Chinese and American student’s eye movements while looking at five faces of different emotional expressions (39). The researchers found Americans (M=.78) were more accurate then Chinese (M=.63) at reading facial expressions and to transitioning to different images (Americans: M= 6.68, Chinese: M=4.71) (Figure 2). Americans (M=19.72) also gazed at the initial picture, or target, more than Chinese (M=12.52), showing a preference for the individual while the Chinese participants viewed all the faces more equally (Figure 2) (Isaacowitz, et al 39-43).

📷

Figure 2

Acknowledging the context of a situation may explain the Collectivist preference for keeping harmony with others. For example, Japanese people smile when things are bad, such as after the death of a loved one, “so as not to inflict his or her sorrow upon others” (Chaika 111). Americans spend an expected time in mourning and would wonder why a mourner appears happy that a loved one died if they were seen smiling. Chinese people also do not compliment family members in public (Wang 5). This is perhaps because they do not wish to cause jealousy or ill feelings for others. On the other hand, Americans give praise even when not earned and they hardly deny positive remarks (5). The differences in Collectivist and Individualist perspectives could easily explain the many differences in nonverbal communication.

The many differences in Western and Eastern cultures stem from miscommunication and a lack of understanding nonverbal communication and perspectives. Even still, the knowledge of another culture’s nonverbal communication still does not guarantee an understanding of the true meaning. For example, Americans are silent “both during moments of love and comfort as well as arguments (Chaika 140). Of course, an Easterner could only view the context of the situation to understand the scenario. Jin writes, “The expression of culture is so bound up in nonverbal communication that barriers to culture learning are more nonverbal than verbal” (Jin 525). By understanding the differing cultural non-verbal communication forms, both Westerners and Easterners will better understand each other.

Works Cited

Chaika, Elaine. Language: The Social Mirror. Boston: Cengage, 2008. Print.

Isaacowitz, et al. "Cultural Differences In Gaze And Emotion Recognition: Americans Contrast More Than Chinese." Emotion 13.1 (2013): 36-46. PsycARTICLES. Web. 20 Feb. 2013.

Emerson, Ralph Waldo. “Quotable Quotes”. Good Reads. Good Reads Inc. Web. 19 Feb 2013.

Jin, Tian. "A Comparative Study Of Chinese And American Cultural Context And The Influence On Communication." Journal Of Language Teaching & Research 1.4 (2010): 524-526. Education Research Complete. Web. 19 Feb. 2013.

Marsh, Abigail A., Hillary Anger Elfenbein, and Nalini Ambady. "Nonverbal 'Accents': Cultural Differences In Facial Expressions Of Emotion." Psychological Science 4 (2003): 373. JSTOR Life Sciences. Web. 19 Feb. 2013.

Ping, Yang. "Nonverbal Aspects Of Turn Taking In Mandarin Chinese Interaction." Chinese Language & Discourse 2.1 (2011): 99-130. Communication & Mass Media Complete. Web. 19 Feb. 2013.

Wang, De-hua, and Hui Li. "Nonverbal Language In Cross-Cultural Communication." US-China Foreign Language 5.10 (2007): 66-70. Academic Search Complete. Web. 19 Feb. 2013.

Wang, De-hua. "Many Differences Constitute Their Different Culture." US- China Foreign Language 6.5 (2008): 4-7. Academic Search Complete. Web. 19 Feb. 2013.